The Issue Of Elder Abuse And Neglect Social Work Essay

The Issue Of Elder Abuse And Neglect Social Work Essay Elder abuse and neglect is a critical health care issue that must be brought to the attention of health care providers and older adults family members. Adults older than 65 who live at home or in long-term care facilities may be at risk for abuse. Nurses should be aware of the causes, screening questions, symptoms of abuse, and resources in the community. Armed with information and a better understanding about the issue, nurses can minimize the devastating effects of abuse on older adults and their families. Every man, woman, and child deserves to be treated with respect and caring. Individuals of all ages deserve to be protected from harm by caregivers (American Psychological Association, 2006). Significant policy developments during the past 20 years have focused on eliminating abuse. However, a deficit in health care providers knowledge and clinical skill application remains. The purpose of this article is to define and describe the kinds of abuse, their potential clinical presentations, and theoretical explanations for abuse to enhance nurses knowledge and understanding of their role in its assessment and management in older adults. BACKGROUND Abuse is defined as the infliction of injury, unreasonable confinement, intimidation, or punishment, with resulting physical harm, pain, or mental anguish (Table 1). It can also be the willful deprivation by a caregiver of goods or services that are necessary to maintain physical or mental health (American Psychological Association, 2006). Elder abuse and neglect has plagued society for centuries but only recently has the issue come to the attention of health care providers, law enforcement agencies, and protective services. Fewer research studies exist about the maltreatment of older adults than about other forms of family violence, including child abuse, rape, and intimate partner violence. The earliest reports of elder abuse and neglect in the United Kingdom in the 1970s dramatized case reports of the phenomenon, termed Granny battering. The health care community and the public were shocked and appalled. A decade later, studies confirmed that the problem was common in the United S tates as well. In the late 1970s, the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging issued a series of reports on abuse and neglect occurring in nursing homes. In 1981, the U.S. House of Representatives Select Committee on Aging conducted hearings in which victimized older adults gave firsthand testimony of their experiences with abuse. In 1986, the Institute of Medicine published recommendations for preventing the maltreatment of older adults in institutions, and several years later, the Elder Abuse Task Force was created by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The task force developed an action plan for the identification and prevention of maltreatment of older adults in their own homes, health care facilities, and communities. The action plan included data collection, research, technical assistance, training, and public education. The National Center on Elder Abuse was established as part of the Administration on Agings Elder Care Campaign. Adult Protective Services progra ms now exist in every state to serve vulnerable adults, particularly older adults, who may be at risk for abuse and neglect. Many law enforcement agencies and Offices of the District Attorney have investigative staff specifically trained to address abuse of older adults and other vulnerable populations, in collaboration with health care and protective service professionals. Such actions have led to increased public and health care provider awareness about elder abuse and neglect. Researchers have also sought to grasp the full scope and causes of maltreatment among older adults. Laws that require health care providers to report suspected cases have been instituted in nearly every state. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (2006) standards for emergency departments and ambulatory care centers call for improved identification and management of elder abuse, in addition to intimate partner violence and child abuse. As the U.S. population ages, demands placed on health care systems to care for older adults are increasing. More than 36 million people who live in the United States are older than age 65, and 600,000 older adults will require assisted living (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Aging, 2006). Currently, there are approximately 17,000 nursing homes in the United States, with 1.6 million residents (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Aging, 2004). Unfortunately, older adults are becoming victims of intentional abuse and neglect within their own homes, as well as in assisted living and long-term care facilities. Each year in the United States, 1 to 2 million adults older than age 65 are injured, exploited, or mistreated by their caregivers (National Research Council Panel to Review Risk and Prevalence of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 2003). One community-based, cross-sectional survey reported that 32 of every 1,000 older adults reported that they had experienced some form of maltreatment at least once since reaching age 65 (Pillemer Finkelhor, 1988). Underreporting is typical with all kinds of abuse, and it is estimated that only 1 in 14 elder maltreatment cases are reported. Health care providers can expect to see a steady increase in the number of cases of elder maltreatment as the older adult population rapidly increases. THEORIES OF ELDER ABUSE Elder abuse is a complex problem with multiple risks and causes. Dysfunctional family lives, cultural issues, and caregiver inadequacies have been implicated as contributing factors. Awareness of such factors may help nurses understand and anticipate situations where maltreatment may be preventable. Several theories attempt to explain the existence and increasing occurrence of elder abuse. The transgenerational, or social learning, theory asserts that violence is a learned behavior. Individuals who have witnessed or been victims of family violence are more likely to try to resolve challenging and difficult life situations with violent tactics they learned in their formative growth. Although 90% of perpetrators of elder abuse are reported to be family members, this cannot account for all cases (Fulmer, Guadagno, Bitondo, Dyer, Connolly, 2004). Situational theory supports the idea that the greater the burden on caregivers, the more likely caregivers are to abuse. Exchange theory addresses the dependence of older adults on their caregivers as a risk of abuse, along with inadequate methods of problem solving as an established pattern of family behavior. Political economic theory addresses the changing roles of older adults. Their loss of independence and income may cause them to look to others for care and support (Fulmer et al., 2004). Psychopathology of the caregiver theory studies caregivers with severe emotional or mental health problems or addictions that put the older adults for whom they care at risk of being abused. For example, a caregiver with a mental health problem who cares for a frail older adult with cognitive impairment is a dangerous combination and may lead to resistant behavior and maltreatment. Although theoretical frameworks cannot explain all cases of elder maltreatment, they can provide a foundation for nurses to begin to understand the combination of factors responsible for the occurrence of elder abuse and initiate a holistic plan of care. NURSING ASSESSMENT INTERVENTIONS Nurses are in an ideal position to play a significant role in the detection, management, and prevention of elder maltreatment and may be the only individuals outside of the family who have regular contact with an older adult. Nurses are uniquely qualified to perform physical and psychological assessments, order confirmatory diagnostic tests (e.g., blood tests, x-rays), and collaborate with physicians and protective services. They may authorize services, such as home health care, or recommend hospital admission as they initiate further investigation by the appropriate local agencies. Opportunities for abuse detection and intervention occur daily in health care settings. In institutional settings, nurses may monitor patient health and perform health history interviews and physical, psychological, sexual, and financial abuse assessments that may be crucial to elicit reports, expose or prevent abuse, and intervene for patients safety (Wieland, 2000). Nurses and other health care providers are part of an interprofessional team collaborating to ensure appropriate, sensitive, and safe outcomes for older adult patients. Institutional maltreatment occurs in long-term care facilities, board-and-care homes, and other assisted-living facilities. Institutional medical directors, private practitioners, nurses, and all health care workers in daily contact with older adults have a responsibility to identify, treat, and prevent abuse. Abuse may be perpetrated by a staff member, another patient, an intruder or a visitor, or a family caregiver. Abuse may include failure to implement a plan of care or provide treatment, unauthorized use of physical or chemical restraints, and use of medication or isolation for punishment or staff convenience. Nurses must be aware of patient diagnoses, medical orders for care, and medications and their side effects to recognize what is suspicious and needs further evaluation or warrants a report to supervisors. However, most elder maltreatment does not occur in institutions but in the home at the hands of a caregiver, often a family member. Unless nurses are educated about abuse and how to observe suspicious injuries, elder abuse may be difficult to detect. Definitions of the kinds of abuse and their signs and symptoms should be included in the training and education of family members and health care workers who care for older adults. Older adults experiencing abuse may be unable to communicate clearly, their bruises may be attributed to the aging process, or they may be fearful and hesitant to report abuse (Wieland, 2000). Indications of physical abuse should signal health care providers to evaluate for other kinds of abuse, such as sexual abuse. In addition to inadequate information, training, and the caregivers experience of caring for older adults, older adults are at risk for maltreatment due to other vulnerabilities. Older adult residents in institutions are typically dependent and chronically ill and may have cognitive, visual, and auditory impairments. They are usually more frail than are younger patients and may not have regular visitors who monitor their mental status, physical condition, or health care. In older adults, each vulnerability increases their mortality risk (Fulmer et al., 2004). Co-existing conditions and medical diagnoses may lead to worse outcomes for older adults who are abused. They may have a decreased ability to heal after injury and may experience greater trauma from physical injuries than do younger people. Their bones are more brittle and tissue more easily bruised, abraded, and lacerated with minimal trauma. Injured older adults differ from the younger population in terms of cause of injury, physical and psychological responses to abuse and injury, and outcomes. Dementia is common in 50% of residents of long-term care facilities (National Center for Health Statistics, 1985), and cognitive impairments often cause older adults to behave in a more resistant manner toward caregivers. Impaired cognition, along with insufficient resources, staff shortages, high staff turnover, and inadequate supervision and training, may increase the risk of elder maltreatment. In addition, societal ignorance about required standards for quality care and victimized older adults acceptance of abusive or neglectful behavior can lead to exacerbation of elder abuse in institutions. Routine questions related to elder abuse and neglect can be incorporated into daily nursing practice. Diminished cognitive capacity does not necessarily negate older adults ability to describe maltreatment. It is always reasonable for nurses to ask about abuse or neglect. A brief mental status examination can be helpful in evaluating patients cognitive status. Assessment for elder abuse should include caregiver, as well as victim, evaluation. Nurses should conduct interviews and examinations with the patient first, in a private setting separate from the caregiver. Clinical settings should have a protocol for the detection and assessment of elder maltreatment. Protocols should consist of a narrative, checklist, or standardized forms that enable rapid screening for elder abuse and provide guidelines for sound documentation that may help disclose patterns of abuse over time and will withstand scrutiny in court. Basic demographic questions should be included and should allow the interviewer to determine the family composition and socioeconomic status. Interviews should proceed from general questions that assess the patients sense of well-being to those focusing on specific kinds of abuse. Common signs and symptoms of maltreatment should be evaluated (Table 2). Elder abuse screening instruments are summarized by Fulmer et al. (2004). Questions recommended by Wieland (2000) for general abuse screening and assessment include: * Do you feel safe where you are living? * Who is responsible for your care? * Do you often disagree with your caregiver(s)? If so, what happens? * Does anyone scold or shout at you, slap or hit you, or leave you alone and make you wait for care or food? After general screening questions, more specific questions about kinds of abuse may follow: * Has anyone ever touched you without your consent? * Has anyone ever made you do things you did not want to do? * Has anyone ever taken something that was yours without asking? * Have you ever signed any documents that you did not understand? Health care providers do not have to prove that elder maltreatment has occurred. They need to screen and document suspicious verbal and physical findings, which may be as simple as stating that the patient seems to have health or personal problems and needs assistance. Sound documentation may include drawings of injuries on body diagrams or photographs to support written reports. Suspicious claims for abuse and neglect may be difficult to quantify. Diagnosis of elder maltreatment depends on education about abuse and application of that knowledge by the multidisciplinary team of health care providers, law enforcement agencies, advocates, and patients. Protocols for elder abuse screening, assessment of risk factors, and documentation should be posted in all health care facilities. ABUSE AND THE LAW National standards for care in nursing homes are based on the Nursing Home Reform Act of 1987. The law is part of the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987, often referred to as OBRA 87. The intent of the law is to promote high-quality care and prevent substandard care. The law also seeks to ensure that the rights of nursing home residents are respected. These include: * The right of protection against Medicaid discrimination. * The right to participate in health care decisions and to give or withhold informed consent for particular interventions. * The right to safeguards to reduce inappropriate use of physical and chemical restraints. * The right for provisions to ensure proper transfers or discharges. * The right to full access to a personal physician, long-term care ombudsman, and other advocates. * The right to be free from verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, corporal punishment, and involuntary seclusion. * The right to be free from physical restraints or psychoactive drugs administered for the purpose of discipline or convenience. Nearly all states have mandatory reporting laws that require health care professionals and paraprofessionals to report suspected elder abuse and neglect to a designated authority. Some state laws specify that after authorities have been alerted to suspected elder abuse or neglect, an agent of the state must make an onsite investigation in an attempt to corroborate the report. Uniform reporting systems are established, and cases are assigned and investigated by protective services in a timely fashion. Cases are assigned and investigated by protective services in a timely fashion. Nurses may play an important role in preventing and identifying elder abuse, as well as in the subsequent investigation. CONCLUSION Elder abuse is a significant problem in the United States and often goes unreported and unrecognized. Elder abuse may be physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or financial. Immediate care, overnight housing, and care in a safe location, in addition to long-term care and home-delivered food, may be necessary. Elder abuse may be a minor issue that can be easily resolved or it can result in severe and life-threatening debilitation. The more knowledge health care providers have, the more likely they are to institute strategies for abuse prevention and management. No matter how minor or severe the abuse, nurses have a duty to assess elderly patients according to recommended protocols and report suspected abuse to designated authorities. The multidisciplinary team then works together to help resolve the issue. The application of knowledge about elder abuse includes screening, assessment, and sound documentation in an attempt to enhance the quality of life and maximize the functional ability of older adults. [Sidebar]

Essay --

The term forensic is used often among television crime dramas but what is it? Forensic, as defined by Oxford Dictionary of English, is â€Å"relating to or denoting the application of scientific methods and techniques to the investigation of crime (Stevenson). This science has led to the capture of many criminals. DNA testing has been a large part of this forensic science, however forensics played a large role prior to DNA testing being developed. Fingerprinting, blood typing, and trace evidence were three of the forensic tests in use before DNA testing that helped identify a suspect. Fingerprinting is a technique that has been in use for a long time. In 1880, a Scottish doctor, Henry Faulds, first suggested to the British that fingerprints could be used in criminal investigations. This suggestion had merit because every person has a unique set of fingerprints. The concept was then incorporated into the law system. Fingerprints are, in fact, most often used in prosecutions. They are to help the prosecutors identify a suspect and to place them at the scene of a crime (â€Å"Fingerprints† 410-411). Fingerprints can be left on almost any surface, including smooth ones. The combination of the friction ridges, or the raised grooves on the fingertips, and sweat that gathers there is what causes the fingerprint to leave a trace (Bergman and Berman-Barrett). Fingerprinting is widely used today and I believe it still plays a large and crucial role in criminal investigations. Blood Typing, or Serology, is another method of identification used in forensics. This type of science is focused on the study of Antigens in the blood and how specific antibodies places blood into separate groups. The blood groups most commonly used in this scie... ...croscopically match fibers from carpet to a specific car is fascinating and intriguing. Trace evidence also seems to be easily left behind, where as fingerprints can be concealed with rubber gloves and blood is not always left at crime scenes. Forensic science consists of many different components that have helped solve many crimes. Fingerprinting can be used to place criminals at scenes and to identify suspects. Serology is a science that has become outdated but helped prosecutors narrow down suspects. It ultimately led to the development of DNA testing, the culprit for its demise. Edmund Locard was the innovator behind the concept of trace evidence and how particles can be compared microscopically to help in crime solving. All of these aspects of forensics potentially led to the development of DNA testing and laid the groundwork for future expansion.

Embryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research Essay -- Exploratory Essays Res

Embryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research With the advent of a wide variety of scientific advances in the medical field, especially those improvements in health-related fields, the quality of life for the earth’s inhabitants has improved greatly over the past century. Scientists continue to improve upon current knowledge and expand the field of medicine. Over the past few years, scientists have performed significant research pertaining to the study of stem cells. Many researchers see potential in the manipulation of stem cells - possible treatments for currently incurable diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s (Goldstein). With these new discoveries, though, questions as to the morality of such practices arise. While few find an ethical problem with the processes involved in adult stem cell research, the destruction of thousands of helpless embryos is wrong and cannot compensate for the potential benefits of embryonic stem cell research, namely some saved lives. There currently exist two primary methods of obtaining stem cells, or generic cells that have the potential to differentiate into more specialized cell types. Most stem cell research is done with embryonic stem cells. When the sperm and the egg combine in the fertilization process, a single zygote cell forms. This cell contains all the same genetic information as every cell in a fully developed human. The only difference is that this zygote has no special function, except to divide multiple times. These other cells that come about as a result of cell division eventually specialize into every type of cell in the body. Because embryonic stem cells have not taken on a specific purpose, they can be manipulated to form the type of cell desired, based on the environm... ... Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity. "Embryonic Stem Cell Research is Unethical." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.comk/servlet/OVRC> Goldstein, Lawrence S.B. "Human Stem Cell Research is Ethical." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.comk/servlet/OVRC> Jordan, Craig T. and Van Zant, Gary. "The Biology of Stem Cells." The Biomedical Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed. 2000. Sullivan, Andrew. "Early Human Embryos are Human Beings." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.com/servlet/OVRC> Weise, Robert. Playing God - Redesiging Life. Ed. Edward Engelbrecht. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 2002. Embryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research Essay -- Exploratory Essays Res Embryonic and Adult Stem Cell Research With the advent of a wide variety of scientific advances in the medical field, especially those improvements in health-related fields, the quality of life for the earth’s inhabitants has improved greatly over the past century. Scientists continue to improve upon current knowledge and expand the field of medicine. Over the past few years, scientists have performed significant research pertaining to the study of stem cells. Many researchers see potential in the manipulation of stem cells - possible treatments for currently incurable diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s (Goldstein). With these new discoveries, though, questions as to the morality of such practices arise. While few find an ethical problem with the processes involved in adult stem cell research, the destruction of thousands of helpless embryos is wrong and cannot compensate for the potential benefits of embryonic stem cell research, namely some saved lives. There currently exist two primary methods of obtaining stem cells, or generic cells that have the potential to differentiate into more specialized cell types. Most stem cell research is done with embryonic stem cells. When the sperm and the egg combine in the fertilization process, a single zygote cell forms. This cell contains all the same genetic information as every cell in a fully developed human. The only difference is that this zygote has no special function, except to divide multiple times. These other cells that come about as a result of cell division eventually specialize into every type of cell in the body. Because embryonic stem cells have not taken on a specific purpose, they can be manipulated to form the type of cell desired, based on the environm... ... Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity. "Embryonic Stem Cell Research is Unethical." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.comk/servlet/OVRC> Goldstein, Lawrence S.B. "Human Stem Cell Research is Ethical." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.comk/servlet/OVRC> Jordan, Craig T. and Van Zant, Gary. "The Biology of Stem Cells." The Biomedical Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed. 2000. Sullivan, Andrew. "Early Human Embryos are Human Beings." Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center 2003. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Group. 18 October 2003. <http://www.galenet.com/servlet/OVRC> Weise, Robert. Playing God - Redesiging Life. Ed. Edward Engelbrecht. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 2002.

Increasing :: Computer Science

Increasing The multi-store model of memory has been criticized for its simplicity. Describe and evaluate the multi-store model and contrast it with one other model of memory The purpose of models of memory is to view a larger picture of how the whole system of memory works. One model of memory is the multi-store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin. The multi-store model of memory (MSM) is an explanation of how memory processes work based on the idea that there are three separate stores. This model can be compared with the working memory model (WM), by Baddely and Hitch, where they give an explanation of immediate memory. The MSM shows that information first arrives at the senses. If attention is focused on it, then it is transferred to short-term memory. It demonstrates information is maintained in STM through rehearsal, otherwise it will decay or may be displaced by new information. Increasing rehearsal leads to transfer from STM to LTM concluding that the more rehearsal, the better information is remembered. A strength of this model would be there is general agreement that there is an STM/STM difference, and this is well supported by the experiential evidence. The MSM is also the basis of many late models, even if they were then divided into further STM and LTM stores. However, The model of memory has been criticized for its simplicity. It does not sufficiently explain LTM, as rehearsal doesn’t explain all LTM memories, e.g flashbulb memories. The MSM is over simplified and in practice, there are no clear differences between stores of memory. It presents a passive view of memory and cannot account for active processes such as reconstruction. Research shows that memory does consist of a series of different stores that are linked by rehearsal, as described by the MSM. However, there is more to memory than this, which is explained in other models of memory. For example, the WM is a refinement of the MSM, describing what is happening in immediate storage in terms of a further set of stores specialised for auditory and visual information. The working memory model was proposed by Baddely and Hitch to represent short-term memory in terms of further sub-divisions. WM consists of 3 components: Central executive, phonological loop and a visuo-spatial sketchpad. The Central executive acts like attention and has limited capacity. The phonological loop deals with auditory information and preserves the order of information. Visuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information when engaged in such tasks. The model explains how simultaneous performance of two visual tasks interfere with each other, but not when one task is visual and the other auditory.

A small family Essay

There is an increasing trend around the world to have a small family rather than a large family. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of having a small family rather than a large family? Over the past decades birth rates have steadily declined. Consequently, the says of nuclear families have diminish all over the world. This easy I will discuss the advantages and shortcomings of smaller family sizes. As small family can benefit children and parents and make it easier to find sufficient resources for a family. Children can enjoy their parents full attention instead of sharing it with multiple siblings. Additionally, I an family with less children sibling rivalry is less likely to be a problem among children. Parents can spend more time with the individual child and the child‘s favourite activities. Caring for a large family can be stressful mad exhausting. Parents of a small family should therefore be more relaxed and patient. Lastly, fewer children mean the family budget is more likely to leave room for some extras, like holidays or separate bedrooms for each child. On the other hand, there are also some downsides for all family members of a small family. Children can end become spoilt and less responsible than their peer growing in large families. Being an only child is often associated with egoism and less developed social skills. Parents will focus all their expectations on fewer children. This will heighten pressure to succeed on the individual child. Moreover, it might be simpler for parents to raise multiple children as siblings learn from each other and play together. In a large family every member can contribute is domestic duties are shared. Also, some common family activities, such as outdoor games, are probably more fun with a larger family. All in all, there are positive and negative aspects of having a smaller family. As family sizes are decreasing most people to believe the advantages outweigh the disadvantages significantly.

The Pink Cow

On the beautiful sunny beach day of March 12, 2008, I visited the Florida Gulf Coast University’s art complex. The first thing I noticed upon entering the art complex was a pink cow. This pink cow consumed my total attention. I hardly noticed anything else. I was so fascinated and taken away by this pink cow that, as I studied this extraordinary painting, it became clear serious precise art techniques were carefully used to design this creation taking attention off everything else in the gallery. It’s a Pink Cow painted by expert artist, Andy Warhol, uses professional levels of sophisticated art coloring and design elements communicating fun, happy environments to the subconscious minds of youthful crowds occupying the buildings wherever his art work hangs. The only reason art sells is because it inspires emotions, controlling mind manipulation atmospheres from fun to conservative. It’s a Pink Cow painting’s strongest identity is color and subject content. This wall paper image created by famous pop artist Andy Warhol made excellent use of shocking contrasting coloring and design in It’s a Pink Cow. It’s a Pink Cow’s shocking hot pink everyday farm animal peaking through a barn door with a light green background which is lit up by the bright yellow sun invokes feelings of pleasure, comical, social interactions. Color invokes moods. â€Å"We learn from color specialists that rooms painted in different colors tend to cause different reactions. Certain blues are cool, certain greens are relaxing, certain reds are warm and comforting. â€Å"(Blair 43) Observing It’s a Pink Cow, and applying our knowledge about art techniques, it is clearly obvious the artist shows creative potential of colors capacity. Normally green is known as evoking feelings of calmness, quietness, seriousness. However, it is totally unlikely this painting containing a sensible green filling in the background to be observed in a church, senior citizens ballroom or a political business meeting room. In some of these different paintings, the background is yellow. In this particular artwork shown in the museum, the background overlooking the picture is grass green. Reflections of bright yellow sunlight shinning on the green grass gives the neutral nondistracting color pizzazz. Adding sunlight to the earth toned green shades is equivalent to adding Hip-Hop music to church choir music. When artists are working at designing original pieces in a highly competitive market full of talented people, it is not enough to design something that it’s only contribution is being pretty. That is why creative arts are popular for breaking traditions. Warhol’s theme in this painting was showing the unique possibilities by applying extraordinary colors to ordinary objects. In this painting, it is not only a pink cow looking at everyone looking at the painting. By coloring a traditionally black or brown object, such as a cow in any bright shade, it is now the bright tint looking at the viewer. A person looking at the painting mood’s are altered on a level they do not realize. A hot fluorescent pink cow’s head looking out the barn holds the person attention, making them look twice at his artwork. The innocent visitor to the art museum first wonders about themselves upon looking at the pink cow. For reassurance, they stand silently to see if their friend accompanying them says anything first. Their friend is doing the same thing. Then the worker at the art gallery passes by, comments on the pink cow and the art museum visitor is now relaxed. The artist’s main objective is to influence or alter people’s moods, and that is what this painting did. Artists selectively chooses the use coloring, lines, forms, shapes etc†¦innovatively to target their selected audience. A green grass providing the background for trees in a landscape would not have the same effect. Andy wanted to sell to the younger generations. Here he is using vivid colors to capture the fun minded light hearted generation. The subject content works in conjunction with coloring creating a surprising and unexpected product making an artists statement that can only be accurately interpreted by the artist. The colors and the subject matter conflict greatly. Bright vivid colors and a pink cow is a symbology of fun. Of all the animals to choose from, why did he choose a cow? A cow is not really a symbology of fun. Looking at paintings such as these peaks curiosity, it draws attention inviting the viewer to investigate more into the artwork. It is necessary to have an idea of history, including the artists personality and style is necessary to make sense of the painting. It’s a Pink Cow appears like it may be a totally improvised, but the sources say differently. â€Å"Once he's chosen something from the chaos of everyday reality to preserve in his art — particularly in his paintings and sculpture — Warhol works extremely hard â€Å"at getting the image absolutely right,† says Leo Castelli. â€Å"He doesn't simply arrive at an image easily and then repeat it senselessly — as many think. That cow wallpaper took him over a year to define. â€Å"(Pratt 53) The only reason art sells is because it inspires emotions, controlling mind manipulation atmospheres from fun to conservative. It’s a Pink Cow was created to provoke laughter, or comical atmospheres. Of all the paintings in the art gallery, this painting stood out. Hanging this painting in the room of a child or young person’s apartment is great for developing and stimulating imaginations. This is especially true if someone was to elaborate on it this art piece, and make the cow sing, dance or tell jokes.

Multilateral vs bilateral diplomacy Essay

Governments need to develop international relations in different fields like security, and trade as well as to decide the option of engaging in a bilateral or multilateral basis with other countries through diplomacy. Bilateralism and multilateralism have supporters and detractors; however the multilateral approach has increased since the end of the Second World War and thanks to the globalisation that affects all the countries around the world. In this way, the international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have become important actors in global governance, cooperating in problem-solving agreements and providing activities to face global problems. IGOs can also be independent actors. Bilateralism is considered the reflection of the distribution of powers between the parties, where the dominant country generally takes advantage, while multilateralism is viewed as relations that follow a pattern of principles. This paper will argue why countries prefer multilateral engagement through international organisations rather than bilateral one with other states. The first part of the essay will focus on the need of states to engage with others. The second part will give a broader definition of bilateralism and multilateralism, the main strengths and weaknesses of each approach. The third part will cover the different role of multilateral organisations in diplomacy. Finally, the fourth part will explain the advantages of the multilateralism that place it as the preferred engagement among countries. Some examples and case studies will be used to remark this tendency. The essay however will finish with some challenges that the multilateralism approach face in the near future. Why countries need to engage with others As the whole society, countries cannot be isolated from the world, this means that they need to develop a foreign policy of how to deal with others, negotiating their interests and solving problems that can arise with the neighbours. This process is named diplomacy (Wright 2011). Diplomacy can be on an individual basis (bilateralism) or in groups of three or more (multilateralism) where states follow principles in their relationship. Asian countries rely mainly in the first approach, meanwhile European countries prefer the second one (Wright 2011). According to the  international relations theory, states may create international law and international institutions, and may enforce the rules they codify. Nevertheless, these rules do not determine a state to act in a defined manner, but instead the underlying material interests and power relations. Institutions also may increase information about states behaviour diminishing the significant uncertainty of cooperation. Also, they can increase efficiency, reducing the transaction costs and providing a venue where states can meet as well as they provide norms, practices and decision making procedures to shape expectations and allow a quickly settle on a specific course of action. It is important to remember that states are configurations of individual and group interests that were constructed from mix of history, ideas, norms, and beliefs and that project those interests into the international system through a particular kind of government (Slaughter 2011). Bilateralism and Multilateralism ‘Bilateralism is a value-free concept, and the substance and output are likely to be driven by the relative power between the two parties and, by extension, by the interests of the stronger party’ (Wright 2011). Bilateralism could be discriminatory if the powerful state tries to get the best deal according to its interests with other states on an individual and ad hoc basis as small states depend on its markets. However, this approach could also bring benefits like the risk reduction since actions are controlled and the probability for reciprocal benefits is higher (Wright 2011). ‘Multilateralism, by contrast, organises relations between three or more states along a set of basic principles that lay out certain expectations of behaviour that all parties must agree to and abide by, including the strongest party’ (Wright 2011). The different challenges that states have faced in terms of security, peacekeeping, disease control, human rights violations, and pollu tion in the last few decades have demonstrated that these factors are complex and cannot be managed by a country or a group, no matter how powerful or effective it can be, it is a global issue (Powell 2003). Policy prescriptions of multilateral organisations seem to be intrusive in terms of state sovereignty, becoming difficult to agree and implement in most cases (Roberts 2009). Multilateralism background and International Organisations Multilateral cooperation origins can be traced a long way back through congresses and conferences, such as the Congress of Westphalia from 1644 to 1648, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the Congress of Paris in 1856. In terms of committees, the first ones were set up to deal with technical matters like the Commissions to regulate the Rhine, the Danube and other rivers. In 1874, the Universal Postal Union was created after the Berne Conference to allow letters stamped and posted in one country could be transported and delivered in another. In terms of Peace, the First Hague Conference of 1899 and the Concert of Europe in from 1815 to 1914 were established. In 1919, after the First World War, the League of Nations appeared ‘to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security’. Finally, the United Nations was born in 1947 after the Second World War with wider aims open to all states (Roberts 2009, Wiseman & Basu, 2013). The international organisations can belong to universal multilateralism (United Nations – UN), regional multilateralism (European Union – EU), value-based multilateralism (North Atlantic Treaty Organization – NATO) or minilateralism (G20) or a mix of some approaches (Wright 2011). They have changed the representation from nation-state governments’ diplomatic to non-state diplomatic actors thank to their role of diplomacy facilitation venue (Pigman 2010). Their participation model will vary depending on their category. Universal multilateralism is open to all states without taking in account their geographic location, size or regime. The barriers of entry are relatively low but the states participation can be on one-state/one-vote basis (General Assembly of United Nations) or weighting vote in the basis of population, wealth or financial contribution (International Monetary Fund – IMF) (Wright 2011, Pigman 2010, Karns & Mingst 2013). The regional multilateralism ‘focuses on policy coordination and cooperation among states in a specific geographic region’ while the values-based multilateralism relies on their own values in terms of security, economic or human rights matters. Finally, minilateralism ‘allows a powerful state or a small group of states to convene a select group that is capable of acting in a timely manner and in a way that is proportionate to the challenge at hand’. The participation in the regional multilateralism and the minilateralism is inclusive but depending on the institution and  culture of the members can be majoritarian or consensus (Wright 2011, Pigman 2010, Karns & Mingst 2013). Multilateral engagement through international organisations International institutions (IGOs) can play a complementary role with states being the universal multilateralism ones the preferred thanks to the benefits granted to the members. States, most of the time, join the IGOs pursuing their national interests or to solve problems mainly in public goods, telecommunications, transportation among others (Karns & Mingst 2013). It is also said that IGOs can build up democracy enhancing domestic constitutional mechanisms and strengthen the principle of reciprocity among countries allowing compensations or other ameliorative actions. IGOs also concede the opportunity to diffuse general interests against special ones thanks to the public agendas, and disseminate important technical information that can be implemented and adapted according to the nations’ needs. Finally, IGOs have empowered societies protecting individual and minority rights, fostering collective deliberation or discussion and improving the participatory strands (Keohane, Macedo & Moravcsik 2009). The United Nations (UN) is the best known of the world’s universal institutions, and even when all countries are welcome, not all receive the same treatment (Wright 2011). The UN has at the moment 193 members and six principal organs: the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the Secretariat, being the most important the General Assembly and the Security Council. The General Assembly allows each member state has one vote however its resolutions are non-binding in a legal sense and only motivate governments to implement them. By contrary, in the case of the Security Council, the five permanent member countries (China, France, United Kingdom, Russian Federation and United States) has the right to veto, and together the other eleven members (elected for two years from the rest of UN members) can authorise to sanction and use the force to preserve or restore peace between nations (Pigman 2010, Wiseman & Basu 2013). Even if this participatory approach could disappoint countries, the fact is that most of the members prefer the UN as their main form of Diplomacy thanks to the opportunity to present proposals, express discomfort or ask for help in specific issues. The UN, through its vast network composed by foundations, major university centres, key NGOs, UN associations, think tanks,  institutes, and prominent individuals, can seek for solutions, programs and activities (Wiseman & Basu 2013). In terms of peace negotiation and new states democracy, the UN has some successful stories as Namibia and East Timor. In the case of Namibia, in 1990, the African country of Namibia became the 160th member of the United Nations after a long process of patient and persistent efforts from the UN that could persuade South Africa to fulfil its colonial mandate in the territory. During Namibia transition, UNTAG (United Nations Transition Assistance Group); consisting of people of 124 nationalities, almost 8,000 troops, and a civilian support and local staff of almost 2,000; worked for around one year to ensure the electoral process and monitor the ceasefire between the South West Africa People’s Organization and South African forces, and the withdrawal and demobilization of all military forces in Namibia (Johnson 2010). In East Timor’s independence, the UN also played an important role to end Indonesia’s 24-year occupation. The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established to provide an integrated, multidimensional peacekeeping operation and was fu lly responsible for the administration of East Timor until 2002 when its transition to independence was completed. The entire infrastructure required to ensure the prosperity of the new democracy was established, and it is told that the UN’s involvement in this small, remote country goes back much further – to the months after the brutal Indonesian invasion of December 1975, when a young, bearded Timorese by the name of Jose Ramos Horta pleaded at the UN Security Council for international support (Head 2012). Until now, only examples of ‘high politics’ (armed conflicts) have been given, however, the UN is also well-known for its support in ‘low politics’ (socioeconomic factors as poverty and resource scarcity) to its members (Wiseman & Basu 2013). Specialised economic agencies such as the UN Council on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) are in charge of much of th e work (Pigman 2010). Important proposals have been raised in these topics, and countless programmes and projects have been executed in developing countries mainly. Examples are Mongolian microfinance plans that have helped this country to pass a centrally planned  to a market-driven economy and have an average annual GDP growth rate of about 5 percent. In Bulgaria, a project named ‘Beautiful Bulgaria’ focused on vocational training for the unemployed, training to small and medium enterprises, start-up financing for small businesses, renovating tourism sites, sporting facilities and playgrounds made possible in 2007 that Bulgaria was admitted to the European Union. The Danube River flows through many Eastern European countries before reaching the Black Sea. In terms of environment, the Black Sea and the Danube River Basin programme has given measurable improvement as countries collectively identified their transboundary problem and agreed to environmental solution. For decades, the discharge of polluted water into the Danube resulted in nutrient over-enrichment in the Black Sea, affecting fish stocks, beaches and the incidence of waterborne disease. The dissolution of the Soviet Union provided an opportunity for countries in the region to launch a collaborative effort to address this issue (UNDP 2011). The UN not only gives the opportunity to deal well-known issues like the ones mentioned before, but it also provides the chance to explore new fields in Diplomacy. An example of this is the current condemnation of United States (US) espionage by Latin America and other countries that feel their sovereignty violated even when the US defends its programme as a tool to fight against terrorism (Stea, 2013). The media has played a key role in this topic pushing the US actual administration to propose changes to the National Security Agency (NSA) program as the promise that US government will no longer store the phone call information, however these ‘changes’ are not clear enough yet for the international community (Ackerman & Roberts 2014). In 2001, United States achieved the support of the UN Security Council that require d states to freeze the assets of individuals or institutions believed to be associated with terrorism (Keohne, Macedo & Moravcsik), however the panorama does not look the same for this issue. Diplomacy through UN has mainly been successful in regulating the international travel through the certification of airports by the International Civil Aviation Organization and the establishment of safety standards; ensuring that products for export meet international standards (e.g. milk, bananas, coffee, tea); ensuring that international agreements are implemented by the member states, for example, agreements relating to shared resources (i.e. animals,  rivers/lakes, logging, etc.); promoting cooperation among various countries, especially within the south (East Asia), resulting in exchange of information, scholarships, businesses, etc.; raising public awareness through international conferences, e.g. Environment (Rio), Human Settlement (Istanbul), Gender (Beijing), the plight of children (New York); promoting technical assistance in various fields to its member states in the third world; and providing shelter and relief to millions of refugees from war and persecution, as well as supporting the repatriation and resettlement of refugees and displaced persons (UNDP 2011). Finally, the UN as venue has also allowed the increase of ‘public diplomacy’ (since conferences are open to the media, therefore to an international audience), the ‘behind-the-scenes bilateral diplomacy’ (because in many cases the UN resolution approaches the parties who after bilateral negotiations solve common issues), and the ‘polylateral diplomacy’ (the relationship between the state and non-state representatives composed by NGOs working with the UN) that could be seen as a network diplomacy (Wiseman & Basu, 2013). Multilateralism Challenges Most of IGOs are labelled as ‘western’, with a strong influence of some members like United States which have unresolved historical grievances. Countries like China, that in the 2000s played a leading role in the construction of multilateral structures in Asia, concerns Washington since it considers that Beijing is using soft power to marginalise the United States. Climate change also poses a threat to all states because the major carbon emitters cannot agree to find a solution as it affects their interests. Compromise not always produces the level of cooperation required to solve a problem (Wright 2011). Nowadays, some of the challenges are referred to asymmetries in the evolving process of multiple channels and levels of diplomatic representation and interaction with the rise of such new powers as Brazil, Germany, India and South Africa. Also, the UN diplomacy is now tied to a larger and more complex diplomatic community of diplomats and non-state actors (Pigman 2010, Wiseman & Basu 2013). Another issue is related to structures. ‘The UN’s basic structure has not evolved with the changing international political climate and configurations. Most obviously, the P5 member states’ privileged status has skewed the relations  between government representatives who otherwise hold equal legal status in the international state system’ (Kerr & Wiseman 2013). To maintain the institution’s legitimacy, efficiency and its role of global governance, deep changes need to be done. Sensitive topics and decisions should be addressed in a correct way. For example, nowadays, the Syria crisis has provoked a wave of critics against the UN that have qualified the organisation as incompetent to find effective solutions to this kind of situations that harms innocent people. Another difficult topic is in terms of the nuclear weapon testing even when the nuclear non-proliferation treaty was signed by 190 nations, including five nations that admitted to owning nuclear weapons: France, England, Russia, China, and the US. The nuclear stockpiles remain high, and numerous nations continue to develop these devastating weapons, including North Korea, Israel, Pakistan, and India. These failures of compliance of the non-proliferation treaty and the inability to enforce crucial rules and regulations on offending nations have increased the criticism towards the UN effectiveness. Finally, resolutions related to sensitive topics as the human rights for gay, lesbian and transgender people may provoke the refusal of member countries that do not share this idea, and that could interpret this as an imposition from Western countries (Crary 2011) Conclusion Diplomacy through multilateral engagement represents the favourite channel of most of the countries thanks to the benefits it represents. States can get active participation in forums and raise petitions as well as to sign agreements that not only involve another state-party but even non-state actors. Technical assistance, humanitarian aid, democracy enhancement, complaints are some of the advantages of the IGO’s as venue, being the United Nations the most well-known thanks to its structure. Other IGO’s like the World Bank, the IMF and the WTO are also important as venue to deal with common issues in a universal or regional basis. However, these IGO’s, mainly the UN, also face challenges that need to be solved to continue the model in the future. The current structure of the Security Council with 5 privileged members has been pushed in the last years to change and enlarge if the UN pretends to continue be considered as ‘the centrepiece of global governanceà ¢â‚¬â„¢, effective and legitimate. The rise of the so-called BRIC  countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) have made the decision making process more carefully as the shift of power in the system is undeniable. 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